Product Qualification

BI/HTOL/LU/ESD(HBM/CDM)/THB or BHAST/PCT

Fails - Exact or Censored

Failure times are either EXACT or CENSORED

Right censored or suspended = Unit has survived when test is stopped

Interval censored = Unit has failed between "Last Inspection" and now

Left censored = Similar to Interval Censoring but "Last Inspection"/Start is 0

Extrapolating Accelerated Test TTF to Predict Use Level Lifetime

Collect TTF at multiple accelerated stress levels.
Fit TTF data to life-distribution (for eg. 2P Weibull) for each stress level, and estimate parameters - each distribution with different eta but same beta (for the same failure mechanism).

Life distribution characteristic (eta) is a function of stress & is equated to stress level using a given Life-Stress-Relationship (LSR) - for eg Eyering Model
Estimate model constants

Now, knowing model constants, estimate eta at various stress levels, including at use level. And knowing beta (for the given failure mechanism) use-level life distribution can be predicted.

FIT Rates

h(t) = hazard rate = f(t)/R(t)
Hazard rate is instantaneous failure rate. But usually, average failure rate for a given time period is more useful, for eg. failure rate per hour.

FIT rate is defined as ppm failure per 1000 hours or number of fails per 10^9 device hours.

Multiply hourly fail-rate by 10^9 to generate FIT rate.

Hourly fail rate = No of rejects / (No of devices x No of hours x AF)

FIT rate = Hourly fail rate x 10^9

No of rejects is determined by Chi-square distribution = [(x^2)/2], commonly at 60% confidence (alpha) and dof: 2r + 2

MS&V

Vibration tests: JESD22-B103B

Swept sine tests: SHM with logarithmic sweep of frequency range from min-to-max, 4 times (4 mins each time) for each of X, Y, Z axes.
Peak acceleration (G), Peak displacement, crossover freq, freq range -for each use condition.
Example: Service condition 1, 20-2KHz, 4 mins/cycle, 4 cyc/axis, 3 axis.

Random vibration:Vibration applied for 30 minutes in each of the 3 orthogonal axes, X, Y, Z
RMS acceleration (G), RMS displacement, RMS velocity, - for each use condition
For each use condition, the selected test parameters above result in PSD values for different frequencies, generating plots/profiles showing PSD (intensity of acceleration power, measured in G^2/Hz) variation across a range of frequencies (2-500Hz).
Area under PSD-frequency plot is RMS acceleration (G)

Mechanical Shock JESD22-B110B:
Component or sub-assembly free-state: 5 shocks x 3 axes (X, Y, Z) x 2 directions/axis, minimum (total) 30 shocks
Sub-assembly mounted: 2 shocks x 3 axes (X, Y, Z) x 2 directions/axis, minimum (total) 12 shocks
Peak acceleration (G), pulse duration, velocity change, equivalent drop height.
Example: Service cond. B, 1500G, 0.5 ms, 5 times/axis, 6 axis

Power cycling

Motherboard, mux board & fan controller board - design & fabrication, DAQ system, Labview software, package + socket + heat sink + wind tunnel/flow channel, system integration, system setup & debug, calibration & testing.

Failure Analysis Techniques: Resolution

STM, AFM, EELS, SIMS, TEM (Angstroms) < AES (2nm) < XPS (5nm) < SEM (10nm) < BSE/EBSD (30nm) < EDX/WDX/XRF (0.3u) < FTIR (3u)

Failure Analysis: Tools & Techniques

Microstructural analysis:
Topography: SEM (low voltage, inelastic collisions, higher resolution, low contrast) /BSE (high voltage, elastic collisions, lower resolution, high contrast)
Morphology: (lattice geometry, crystallographic structure) EBSD/TEM/AFM/STM

Material analysis:
Elemental: EDX/WDX/XRF
Chemical: (structural bonds, oxidation states) AES/XPS/EELS/SIMS/FTIR

Interaction between primary electrons & matter: SEM, TEM, BSE, EBSD, EDX & WDX
Interaction between primary X-Rays & matter: XPS, AES, XRF
Other techniques: Opticals, X-Rays, CSAM, Curve Trace, TDR, IR & thermal imaging, SQUID, LSM (LIVA/OBIC for opens & TIVA/OBIRCH for shorts), x-sections, P-laps & FIB cuts

Making Sense of Physics-of-Failure Based Approaches

PoF is an alternative approach / methodology to reliability that is focused on failure mechanism, failure site & root cause analysis instead of the more conventional approach that looks at failure modes & effects alone. The PoF approach characterizes reliability through lifetime distributions (probability distribution of frequency of fails v/s time) instead of hazard rates (failure rate v/s time). PoF approaches involve the followings steps:
1. Study of the hardware configuration: geometry, design, materials, structure
2. Study of life cycle loads: operational loads (power, voltage, bias, duty cycle) & environmental loads (temperature, humidity, vibration, shock)
3. Stress analysis: Stress-strength distributions/interference, cumulative damage assessment & endurance interference, FMEA, hypothesize failure mechanisms, failure sites & associate failure models, root cause analysis, calculate RPN's to rank & prioritize failures.
4. Reliability assessment: Rel metrics characterization, life estimation, operating/design margin estimation.
5. Interpret & apply results: Design tradeoffs & optimization, ALT planning & development, PHM & HUMS planning.

Hypothesis Tests : Which & When?

Test of Means:
1-sample or 2-sample: Use z-test for n>=30 or when population variance is known, else use t-test
> 2-samples: Use ANOVA

Test of Variances:
1-sample: Use Chi-square test
2-samples: Use F-ratio test

Test of Proportions:
1-sample or 2-sample: Use z-test
>2-samples: Use Chi-square test

Distributions

Distributions for Attribute/Finite Data:
Hypergeometric: Probability of r rejects in n sample size for N population size with d total rejects. (Intended for small, finite, well characterized populations)
Binomial: Probability of r rejects in n sample size, where n < 10% of N population size, where chance of success in any given trial always stays the same (p)(Intended for large population sizes)
Poisson: Probability of r rejects (=defects or events) in infinite population size, for a given failure rate (lambda). (Intended for n->infinity & p->0)

Binomial distribution approximates Hypergeometric distribution for large N.
Poisson distribution approximates Binomial distribution when N tends to infinity.

Distributions for Continuous Data: Normal, Lognormal, Exponential, Weibull

SPC/Control Charts

Control charts are used to differentiate & identify special causes of variation from those that are common cause related. These may be freaks/outliers, drifts, shifts, stratification, recurring patterns & systematic variation.
For variable data, use I-MR (for n=1), X(bar)-R (for n = 2 to 10) or X(bar)- s (for n>10)

For attribute data:
1. Count/proportion of defectives is estimated through binomial distribution. For constant sample size(n), estimate count of defectives using np chart, while for variable sample size, estimate proportion of defectives using p-charts.

2. Count/rate of defects is estimated through poisson distribution. For constant sample size(n), estimate count of defects using c-chart, while for variable sample size, estimate rate of defects using u-chart.

IC Package Types or Outlines

Six Sigma & Process Variation

For a normal distribution:
-Approx 68% of variation is contained within +/- 1sigma
-Approx 95% of variation is contained within +/- 2sigma
-Approx 99.7% of variation is contained within +/- 3sigma

Cp = 1 when +/- 3 sigma is contained within spec limits.
Cp = 1.33 when +/- 4 sigma is contained within spec limits.
Cp = 1.50 when +/- 4.5 sigma is contained within spec limits.
Cp = 1.67 when +/- 5 sigma is contained within spec limits.
Cp = 2.00 when +/- 6 sigma is contained within spec limits.

Acceptance sampling: LTPD & AQL

AQL = definition of a threshold good lot.
LTPD = definition of a threshold bad lot.

The sampling plan is designed around the AQL/LTPD such that it defines:
1. MAX chance of ACCEPTING lots of quality that is equal or worse than LTPD. This chance/risk is BETA or CONSUMER's RISK.
2. MAX chance of REJECTING lots of quality that is equal or better than AQL. This chance/risk is ALPHA or PRODUCER's RISK.
Alpha (Probability of rejection) is usually set to 0.05. This equates to 95% chance/confidence of acceptance.
Beta (Probablility of acceptance) is usually set to 0.10. This equates to 90% chance/confidence of rejection.

Power, Confidence, Error, Significance

Reject null hypothesis when true (false positive) = alpha or Type 1 error
Accept null hypothesis when false (or false negative) = beta or Type 2 error
Reject null hypothesis when false: POWER = (1-beta)
Accept null hypothesis when true : CONFIDENCE (= 1-alpha)
At high power, beta is small => alpha is large => likely that p-value will be < alpha (significance level). Most effects tend to be deemed significant.
At low power, beta is large => alpha is small => likely that p-value will be > alpha (significance level). Most effects tend to be deemed insignificant.

2.5/3D TSV & Silicon Interposers: Weighing Pros v/s Cons

Benefits: 1. High density integration facilitating greater functionality (digital/logic, memory, analog, MEMS, optoelectronics, signal & power management) in smaller footprint. 2. Improved memory bandwidth and power management. 3. Faster signal speeds & lower parasitics (noise, crosstalk, latencies, propagation delays, interference) 4. Modular design & die-partitioning permits use of mixed IC technology, improving product development & supply-chain flexibility/scalability. 5. Best of both worlds between PoP(= modularity, shorter & less complex development cycles/TTM)& SoC (= increased wiring densities, faster signal speeds, memory/power benefits) type package architectures. Issues & concerns: 1. Cost: KGD yield related issues, manufacturing & test complexities drive cost upwards. 2. Thermal management. While 3D stacked memory (NAND Flash on S/D/RAM) and memory-on-logic(DSP with DRAM, GPU with SRAM) configurations have been successfully demonstrated & mass-produced, logic on logic has largely been beyond reach of thermal envelopes of existing packaging materials. 3. Manufacturing complexities: Additional processes such as backgrinding, bonding/debonding to carrier wafers & stacking are involved. Considerations include deciding between via-first, via-middle, via-last flows; F2F, F2B chip-attach schemes; W2W, D2D, D2W integration configurations. Thin die handling/die-attach and capillary underfill flow in tight interstitial spaces are challenges. PAM/NCP/NCF's with TCB will be needed. 4. Supply chain / ownership/ business model needs clarity: backgrinding/stacking/bumping/dicing/bonding/debonding operations need clear process owners. Who does what & what if things go wrong-these questions need clear answers. 5. Design tool kit to address multiple aspects (substrate/SoC design, SI/PI, RF & power management, EDA) is still in the exploratory & pathfinding phase. 6. Lack of standards across the industry for 2.5D/3D TSV facilitation. These are expected to be developed as needed and customized as required.

Product Development: Womb to Tomb, Cradle to the Grave

Technology Qual -> Node developed & validated -> Product Enablement -> Development Kickoff -> Logic Design -> Physical Design (partitioning/floorplanning/placement & layout) -> DRC -> Review/approve substrate drawings for substrate manufacturing & assembly bringup (tooling: jigs, fixtures, stencils, sockets, etc) -> Tapeout -> FAI -> First Silicon -> Assembly process development, optimization & validation (manufacturing windows & corner studies,material screens, material/equipment/process/recipe readiness) -> EVT builds -> Test charz (defects & yield, pareto of rejects) -> Reliability Charz (AM qual, margin assessment, robustness testing, component & board level testing) -> customer prototype builds -> Qualification -> Production Readiness (process/material specs, bill-of-materials, product flows, vendor lists, capacity & resource planning) -> Production Release through soft ramp -> HVM -> QMP(SPC/CoC) -> EOL

Six Sigma : Process & Design

Process: Aims to reduce process variation Define: Plan, scope, charter, schedule, team, objectives, milestones, deliverables Measure: MSA, GR&R, Process Capability, Yields Analyze: Hypothesis tests, ANOVA, PFMEA, Process Maps (KPIV/KPOV) Improve: DoE Control: SPC, Control Charts Design: Aims to reduce cycle time and need for rework Define: Plan, scope, charter, schedule, team, objectives, milestones, deliverables Measure: Baseline, benchmark, functional parameters, specs & margins Analyze: DFMEA, Risk analysis, GAP analysis Develop: Deliver design Optimize: DfX - tradeoffs Validate: Prototype builds

Firefighting through methodical madness

1. Develop Team 2. Define Problem: Failure rate, lots affected, establish scope 3. Containment: Raise red flags, lots on hold, generate documentation, reliability assessment, sampling plans, increased checks & balances 4. Problem analysis: Process mapping, history tracking, establish commonalities & dependencies, consult FMEA, RCA/5W/5M, failure analysis, establish hypotheses, develop CAPA theories (short-term/mid-term/long-term) 5. Verify corrective actions: Engineering studies to duplicate problem and verify effectiveness of CA 6. Implement corrective action: Release lots, provide disposition, soft ramp through full release with increased sampling, document lessons learnt 7. Implement preventive action: Mid-term/long-term actions to prevent any recurrences in future 8. Congratulate team